Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Notes

Some Important Key Words

Absolutist - Fundamentally, a form of government or ruling system characterized by unchecked exercise of authority. In historical context, this phrase denotes a centralized, militarized, and suppressive type of monarchical governance.

Utopian - An idealized concept of a society that is often so perfect that its realization is improbable.

Plebiscite - A direct ballot, where all individuals in a specific region are invited to vote for or against a proposal.

Suffrage - The right to vote.

Conservatism -  A political ideology that emphasized the significance of tradition, established institutions, and customs, and favored gradual progress over rapid change.

Feminist - Recognition of women's rights and concerns rooted in the belief in the equality of genders in social, economic, and political aspects.

Ethnic - Refers to a shared racial, tribal, or cultural heritage that a community identifies with or lays claim to.

Allegory - When an abstract concept (like greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is represented through a person or object. An allegorical tale carries dual meanings: one concrete and one symbolic.

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Frederic Sorrieu’s Painting

• In 1848, a French artist named Frédéric Sorrieu created a set of four prints that depicted his vision of a world composed of 'democratic and social Republics'.
• During the era of the French Revolution, artists symbolized Liberty as a female figure.
• In Sorrieu's idealistic imagination, the global populations are categorized as separate nations, distinguished by their flags and traditional attire.
• At the forefront of this procession stand the United States and Switzerland, followed by France, Germany, and more.
• From the skies above, Christ, saints, and angels observe the spectacle.
• These figures have been employed by the artist to signify a sense of brotherhood among the world's nations.

The French Revolution and the Concept of Nation

• The measures and strategies implemented by the French revolutionaries to foster a sense of shared identity among the French populace:
• The concepts of La Patrie (the homeland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) underscored the idea of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• A fresh French flag, the tricolor, was selected to replace the former Royal Standard.
• The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed as the National Assembly.
• New anthems were composed, pledges taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
• A centralized administrative system was introduced, devising uniform laws for all citizens.
• Internal tariffs and dues were abolished, and a standardized system of measurements was adopted.
• Local dialects were discouraged, and French was promoted as the common language of the nation.

The outcome of Napoleonic reforms

• By reinstating monarchy, Napoleon dismantled democracy in France.
• He restructured the administrative sphere for greater rationality and efficiency.
• The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) eliminated birth-based privileges, established legal equality, and safeguarded property rights.
• Napoleon streamlined administrative divisions, abolished feudalism, and liberated peasants from serfdom and feudal dues in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
• Urban areas saw the removal of guild constraints.
• Enhancements were made to transportation and communication networks.

Napoleon's invasions were met with resentment in multiple countries due to

• Disruption of Established Systems: Napoleon's invasions disrupted the existing political, social, and economic structures in the invaded countries. This led to uncertainty and upheaval among the local populations.
• Violation of National Sovereignty: The invasions were seen as an encroachment on the sovereignty of these nations, as Napoleon aimed to establish French dominance and control over their affairs.
• Imposition of French Rule: The invaders imposed French laws, governance, and institutions on the conquered territories. This often resulted in loss of autonomy and cultural suppression.
• Economic Strain: The financial burden of supporting the French army and administration weighed heavily by increasing tax on the local economies, leading to economic hardship and discontent.
• Cultural Suppression: Local languages, customs, and traditions were marginalized or even prohibited in favor of French culture. This caused resentment among populations that valued their own cultural identity.
• Forced Military Service:  The French conscripted locals into their military ranks, forcing them to fight for causes that might not align with their own aspirations.
• Desire for Self-Governance: Many populations aspired for self-governance and the ability to determine their own destinies, which was denied by the invading French forces.
• Nationalism and Patriotism: The invasions fueled a sense of nationalism and patriotism among the local populations, motivating them to resist foreign rule.
• Conflict and Instability: The invasions often led to internal conflicts and unrest, as resistance movements and partisan groups formed to challenge the occupying forces.
• Loss of Resources: The invaders often extracted resources and wealth from the conquered regions, further contributing to local grievances.
• Long-Term Impact: The memories of these invasions had a lasting impact on these countries, shaping their historical narratives and attitudes towards foreign intervention.

The Formation of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy

• Socially and politically, the dominant class across the continent was the landed aristocracy.
• These individuals shared a common lifestyle, owning estates both in rural areas and towns.
• For diplomatic purposes and within high society, they conversed in French.
• Families ties often connected different aristocratic families.
• Despite its influence, this aristocracy was a relatively small group, as the majority was composed of peasants.

The New Middle Class

• In Western and certain parts of Central Europe, the rise of industrial production and trade led to the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes that relied on market-based production.
• The era of industrialization introduced new social segments: a working-class population and a middle class comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• Among the educated and liberal middle classes, notions of national unity gained traction after the elimination of aristocratic privileges.

Liberal Nationalism

• In the early 19th century, liberalism championed individual freedom and equality for the emerging middle classes.
• Politically, liberalism promoted the concept of government through consent.
• It advocated for the end of autocracy, clerical privileges, the establishment of a constitution, and representative governance via parliament.
• However, equality before the law did not necessarily include universal suffrage, as those without property and all women were excluded from political rights.
• Economically, liberalism supported free markets and the removal of state-imposed trade and capital movement barriers.

In 1834, a customs union called the Zollverein was established through the initiative of Prussia, gaining participation from most German states. This union eliminated tariffs and reduced currencies from over thirty to just two.

A Fresh Conservatism after 1815

• Conservatives believed in preserving established traditional institutions of state and society, such as the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family.
• In light of the changes initiated by Napoleon, conservatives recognized that modernization could actually fortify traditional institutions like the monarchy.

The Treaty of Vienna 1815

In 1815, representatives of major European powers like Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, who had collectively defeated Napoleon, convened at Vienna to establish a post-war settlement for Europe. Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich hosted the Congress.

Key elements of the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 included:

• Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, previously dismantled during the French Revolution.
• France ceded the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
• Creation of buffer states around France to prevent future expansion.
• Prussia gained new territories in its western frontiers, while Austria controlled northern Italy.
• The German confederation established by Napoleon remained intact.
• Russia acquired a portion of Poland, and Prussia took a part of Saxony.
• Monarchy was reinstated, leading to the formation of a conservative order in Europe.

Drawbacks:

• The conservative regimes introduced in 1815 were characterized by autocratic rule.
• They suppressed dissent and criticism.
• Efforts were made to suppress activities challenging the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
• Many implemented censorship laws to control content in newspapers, books, plays, and songs.

The Revolutionaries

The Role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian Revolutionary:

• Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, was born in Genoa in 1807. He became part of the secret society known as the Carbonari.
• He founded two underground organizations: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. These societies attracted likeminded young men from countries like Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
• Mazzini strongly believed that nations were the intended natural units of humanity, leading him to advocate for a unified Italian republic within a broader alliance of nations.
• Following his example, secret societies were established in countries such as Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
• Mazzini's steadfast opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics instilled fear among conservatives.

The Era of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• The initial upheaval occurred in France in July 1830.
• Metternich once famously stated,"When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catch a cold."

Greek War of Independence

• The Greek War of Independence was a catalyst for nationalist sentiments among educated elites across Europe.
• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
• Greek nationalists received support from fellow Greeks in exile and from Western Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists celebrated Greece as the cradle of European civilization.
• Lord Byron, an English poet, organized funds and even fought in the war.
• The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Romanticism

• This cultural movement aimed to cultivate a specific form of nationalist sentiment in the following ways:
• Romantic artists and poets critiqued the glorification of reason and science, focusing on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder proposed that folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances could popularize a nation's true spirit.
• Vernacular language and the collection of local folklore were emphasized to revive an ancient national essence and communicate modern nationalist ideas to mostly illiterate audiences.

Language's Role in Cultivating National Sentiments in Europe

• Despite being partitioned by Great Powers – Russia, Prussia, and Austria – Poland managed to keep nationalist feelings alive through music and language, even though it wasn't independent.
• Karol Kurpinski, for instance, celebrated national struggle through his operas and music, elevating folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka as nationalist symbols.
• When Russia occupied Poland, Polish language was replaced with Russian in schools and public life.
• Polish clergy adopted language as a weapon of national resistance, using Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction.
• This use of Polish was seen as a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt

• The 1830s witnessed significant economic hardship in Europe:
• Rapid population growth led to widespread unemployment.
• Rural residents migrated to cities, resulting in overcrowded slums.
• Town-based small producers faced tough competition from imported machine-made goods from England.
• In regions where aristocracy held sway, peasants suffered under feudal dues and obligations.
• Food price hikes or poor harvests led to extensive poverty in both urban and rural areas.

1848 Events:

• Shortages and unemployment triggered Parisians to take to the streets.
• Barricades were raised, forcing Louis Philippe to abdicate.
• A National Assembly established a Republic, granting suffrage to adult males over 21 and ensuring the right to work.
• National workshops were set up to provide employment.

1848: The Revolution of Liberals

• The events of February 1848 in France led to the monarchy's downfall and the establishment of a republic with universal male suffrage.
• In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, liberal middle-class men and women combined constitutional demands with national unity aspirations.
• Growing unrest enabled them to push for a nation-state based on parliamentary principles, involving a constitution, press freedom, and association freedom.
• In Germany, numerous political associations of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans converged in Frankfurt. They aimed to establish an all-German National Assembly.
• However, middle-class resistance to worker and artisan demands weakened their support, eventually leading to troop intervention and the disbandment of the assembly.
• The issue of granting political rights to women was contentious within the liberal movement, despite women actively participating over the years.
• Women formed political associations, started newspapers, and engaged in political activities. Yet, they were denied voting rights during the Assembly election. The Frankfurt parliament permitted women only as observers in the visitors' gallery.

The Role of Women in Nationalist Struggles

Despite actively participating, women faced a contentious debate over political rights within the liberal movement. They formed political groups, launched newspapers, and took part in political gatherings and protests. However, they were denied the right to vote in Assembly elections. In the Church of St. Paul, where the Frankfurt parliament convened, women were allowed only as observers in the visitor's gallery.

Formation of Germany and Italy

Formation of Germany / Otto Von Bismarck's Role in Germany's Formation

• Prussia led the push for national unification.
• Otto Von Bismarck, Prussia's chief minister, orchestrated the process with the support of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Prussia achieved unification through three wars over seven years, involving Austria, Denmark, and France.
• In January 1871, Prussian King William I became the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
• In a meeting at the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles, in January 1871, representatives from German states, army, and important Prussian ministers, including Otto von Bismarck, declared Kaiser William I of Prussia as the head of the newly formed German Empire.

Formation of Italy

• Italy was fragmented among various dynastic states.
• Sardinia-Piedmont was governed by an Italian princely house.
• Austrian Habsburgs ruled the north, the Pope controlled the center, and Bourbon kings of Spain dominated the south.
• Giuseppe Mazzini attempted to unify Italy in the 1830s, forming the secret society Young Italy.
• Failed revolts in 1831 and 1848 shifted the focus to Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II, aiming to unify through war.
• Chief Minister Cavour, with a diplomatic alliance with France, defeated Austrian forces in 1859.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi and volunteers also played a role.
• In 1860, they entered South Italy and Two Sicilies, gaining local peasant support to oust Spanish rulers.
• Victor Emmanuel II was declared the king of united Italy in 1861.

Britain's Unique Situation

• Britain's nation-state formation was a gradual process.
• Before the 18th century, there wasn't a British nation.
• Inhabitants identified primarily by ethnic labels such as English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
• The English Parliament, which assumed power from the monarchy in 1688 after extended conflict, forged a nation-state with England at its core.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland created the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain,' enabling England to exert influence on Scotland.
• The British parliament was dominated by its English members.
• British identity growth led to suppression of Scotland's distinct culture and institutions.
• Ireland faced a similar fate, torn between Catholics and Protestants.
• English assistance helped Protestant dominance over mainly Catholic Ireland.
• Catholic revolts against British rule were suppressed.
• Following a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

Visualizing the Nation

• During the 18th and 19th centuries, artists personified nations, portraying countries as individuals.
• Artists often depicted nations as female figures.
• The female allegory represented concepts like liberty, justice, and the republic.
• In France, the allegory took the form of Marianne, a name emphasizing a people's nation.
• Marianne's features were influenced by Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, tricolor, and cockade.
• Statues of Marianne adorned public squares to remind people of unity and encourage identification.
• Marianne's images appeared on coins and stamps.
• Germania symbolized the German nation, crowned with oak leaves denoting heroism.

Meaning of the Symbols

Symbol / attribute	Significance
Broken chains	Being freed
Crown of oak leaves	Heroism
Sword	Readiness to fight
Breastplate with eagle	Symbol of the German empire – strength
Black, red and gold tricolour	Flag of the liberal nationalists in 1848, banned by Dukes of the German states
Olive branch around the sword	Willingness to make peace
Rays of the rising sun	Beginning of a new era

Nationalism and Imperialism Interplay

Rising Nationalist Tensions in the Balkans region Prior to World War-1

• The Balkans, a region characterized by geographical and ethnic diversity encompassing present-day countries such as Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, was inhabited by Slavs.
• Part of the Balkans was under Ottoman Empire's control, while other portions were governed by Russia and Austria, resulting in a complex situation.
• The rise of Romantic nationalism in the Balkans coincided with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, creating a highly volatile environment.
• Distinct Slavic nationalist groups were grappling to establish their identities.
• The Balkan area became a hotspot of conflict, especially concerning territorial expansion.
• Simultaneously, major European powers – Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary – sought influence over the Balkans due to its strategic trade significance.
• These dynamics culminated in a series of wars within the region, ultimately becoming a triggering factor for World War I.

The lofty ideals of liberal-democratic nationalism in the early 19th century evolved into a constrained ideology with restricted goals.

• During this era, nationalist factions grew increasingly intolerant of each other, readily resorting to military actions.
• Prominent European powers manipulated nationalist sentiments to advance their imperialist objectives.
• A particularly significant source of nationalist tension after 1871 was centered in the Balkans.
• The convergence of romantic nationalism with the crumbling Ottoman Empire rendered the region highly unstable.
• Successively, European nationalities broke free from foreign control and asserted their independence.
• Balkan peoples grounded their demands for autonomy or political rights in their distinct national identities, using historical evidence to assert that they had once enjoyed sovereignty before falling under foreign domination.
• As various Slavic nationalities grappled with defining their uniqueness and self-governance, the Balkans transformed into a volatile zone of contention.

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Some Important Dates

1789: French Revolution begins

1797: Napoleaon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars begin.

1814: 1815: Fall of Napoleon; Congress of Vienna conduct and peace settlement done.

1821: Greek struggle for independence begins.

1830: July Revolution in France

1848: Revolutions of 1848 across Europe; artisans, industrial workers and peasants revolt against economic hardships; middle classes demand constitutions and representative governments; Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs etc. demand nation-states.

1870: Unification of Italy

1871: Unification of Germany

1905: Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.

1914: Outbreak of World War-1