History Chapter 4 - The age of Industrialization - Notes

The age of Industrialization

Key Definitions:

1. Guild: A group of craftsmen or merchants in the same trade who come together to protect their members' interests and maintain work standards.
2. Tanning: The process of transforming raw hide into leather by soaking it in a liquid containing tannic acid.
3. Food Processing: The method of chopping and mixing food to create products like jam and juices.
4. Victorian Britain: Refers to the period when Queen Victoria ruled Britain.
5. Brewery: A place where beverages like beer are commercially produced. Brewing involves infusion, boiling, and fermentation.
6. Vagrant: A person who lacks a permanent home or regular employment.
7. Bourgeois: Refers to the upper middle class.
8. Gomastha: An Indian term describing an agent or intermediary who facilitates transactions between merchants and weavers.
9. Stapler: An individual responsible for sorting wool based on its fiber content.

Before to the Industrial Revolution

Proto-industrialization means - a time before factories existed in England and Europe.

• Before Factories: Proto-industrialization happened before factories were established.
• Large-Scale Production: During this period, there was significant production for the world market, but it didn't occur in factories.
• Rural Production: Instead, it took place in the countryside.
• Merchant Involvement: European traders went into rural areas during the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Financial Support: They gave money to peasants and craftsmen.
• Production for the Global Market: They asked these rural folks to make goods for the world market.
• Avoiding Urban Restrictions: The city rulers had established rules allowing only specific groups to engage in production and sales
• Peasant and Craftsman Participation: Poor farmers and craftsmen joined this proto-industrial system.
• Staying in Rural Areas: They liked it because it let them keep living in the countryside and farming a bit.
• Under the control of merchants: This whole system was part of a trade network managed by merchants.

The Establishment (Rise) of Factories

• Factory Beginnings: The first factories in England started around the 1730.
• Growth in Factory Numbers: However, it wasn't until the late 17^th century that there was a big increase in the number of factories.
• Cotton Industry: A significant industry during this time was cotton.
• Late 18^th century Boom: The late 18^th century saw a huge increase in cotton production.
• Richard Arkwright's Role: Richard Arkwright was important in this because he invented the cotton mill.
• Centralized Production: These mills had expensive machines and brought all the production steps together in one place.
• Efficient Management: This made managing and running things much more efficient.

The Speed of Industrial Transformation

• Leading Industries in Early Industrialization: In the early stages of industrialization, the cotton and metals industries were the leading sectors in Britain
• Cotton's Early Dominance: Cotton held a prominent position during the first phase of industrialization, a dominance that continued until the 1840.
• Rise of Iron and Steel: Following this period, there was a rise in the iron and steel industry.
• Challenges to Traditional Sectors: Even with the growth of these new industries, the traditional sectors faced challenges in being replaced.
• Progress in Traditional Industries: While steam-powered cotton and metal industries were leading the changes, traditional sectors also made advancements.
• Gradual Technological Changes: Technological improvements, including James Watt's enhancement of the steam engine, were introduced slowly.
• Watt's Milestone: James Watt's patent for the improved steam engine in 1781, which was manufactured by Mathew Boulton, marked a significant milestone.
• Steam Engine Adoption: However, the widespread adoption of steam engines in other industries didn't occur until later in the century.

Manual Labor and Steam Power

• Abundant Human Labor: In Victorian Britain, there was a plentiful supply of human labor.
• No Labor Shortages or High Wages: Industrialists didn't experience problems related to a lack of workers or high wages during this time.
• Capital Investment Priority: Instead of a shortage of labor, industrialists were more concerned about the need for significant capital investment.
• Seasonal Production Fluctuations: Many industries faced seasonal fluctuations in production.
• Manual Labor for Seasons: In such cases, industrialists often chose to hire manual labor, bringing in workers for specific seasons.
• Limited Use of Machines: Machines were not always the preferred choice in these industries because the demand for labor changed with the seasons.

The Workers' Lives

• Abundant Labor Impact: The presence of a lot of available labor in the market had a significant effect on workers' lives.
• Employment Networks: Getting a job often relied on existing networks of friendships and family connections within factories.
• Job Challenges: Finding employment was difficult for workers until the mid-nineteenth century.
• Early 19th Century Wage Growth: However, wages started to increase in the early 18^th century.
• Technology Fear: Workers, worried about losing their jobs, showed resistance to the introduction of new technology, such as the Spinning Jenny in the woolen industry.
• Urban Expansion: From the 1840 onward, urban areas saw increased construction activity, creating more job opportunities.
• Infrastructure Development: This development included widening roads, building new railway stations, expanding railway lines, digging tunnels, establishing drainage and sewer systems, and embanking rivers.

Industrialization in Colonial Territories

The Era of Indian Textiles

• Dominance of Indian Textiles: In India, silk and cotton products held a significant position in the global textile market before the era of machine industries.
• Role of Indian Merchants: A diverse group of Indian merchants and bankers played a vital part in the export trade network. They provided financing, transportation, and supplies to exporters.
• Decline of Indian Merchant Control: Around the 1750, this network controlled by Indian merchants began to weaken.
• Emergence of European Companies: European companies became the new influential players. They initially secured agreements with local authorities and eventually gained exclusive trade rights.
• Shift to New Ports: The transition from old ports to new ones marked the increasing authority of colonial powers.
• European Ships and Control: European companies took over trade operations through these new ports, using European ships.
• Impact on Traditional Trading Houses: Many traditional trading establishments faced collapse, and those that survived had to adapt to a network shaped by European trading companies.

What Occurred with Weavers?

• Post-1760 East India Company Consolidation: After the 1760, the East India Company's efforts to strengthen its control did not immediately lead to a decline in India's textile exports.
• Supply Challenges Before Political Control: Before gaining political control in Bengal and Carnatic during the 1760 and 1770, the company struggled to ensure a consistent supply of goods for export.
• Management of Textile Trade: Once political power was established, the East India Company introduced a system to manage and govern the textile trade. Their goal was to eliminate competition, control expenses, and maintain a steady flow of cotton and silk products.
• Measures Implemented:
• They removed existing traders and intermediaries involved in the cloth trade, taking direct control over the weavers.
• Company weavers were not allowed to work with other buyers.
• Weavers were provided loans for buying raw materials, but they had to hand over the produced cloth to the company's representative, known as the "Gomastha."
• Entire families were involved in weaving, with children and women participating in various stages of the process.
• The previous close relationships between supply merchants and weavers were replaced by "Gomasthas," who were outsiders without village social connections.
• Weaver Responses:
• In some parts of Carnatic and Bengal, weavers established looms in villages where they had family ties.
• In other regions, weavers joined local traders in rebelling against the East India Company and its officials.
• Over time, many weavers began refusing loans, closing their workshops, and turning to agricultural work.
• Challenges in the 19th Century: By the early 19th century, cotton weavers faced a new set of challenges.

Manchester Arrives in India

• Henry Patullo's Observation (1772): In 1772, Henry Patullo noted the continuous demand for Indian textiles, emphasizing that no other nation produced goods of similar quality.
• Textile Export Decline in Early 19th Century: However, by the early 19th century, India's textile exports declined, while British cotton goods experienced a significant increase in exports.
• Import Restrictions (Late 18th Century): During the late 18th century, the import of cotton-piece goods into India was limited.
• Challenges for Indian Cotton Weavers:
• Export Market Collapse: Indian cotton weavers faced two primary challenges during this period:
• The Saturated Local Market: The collapse of their export market and the saturation of the local market with imports from Manchester.
• New Challenge in the 1860: By the 1860, weavers encountered a new issue - a scarcity of high-quality raw cotton supply. The export of raw cotton from India grew, resulting in higher prices.
• Late 19th Century Challenges for Artisans: Towards the end of the 19th century, additional challenges emerged for other artisans. Factories in India began mass production, leading to a flood of machine-made goods flooding the market.

Establishment of Factories:

• In 1854, the first cotton mill was founded in Bombay, and it commenced operations in 1856.
• Within the following years, four more mills were set up in Bombay.
• Concurrently, jute mills were established in Bengal, with the first one appearing in 1855, followed by another in 1862.
• In the 1860s, the Elgin Mill started operations in Kanpur, located in northern India.
• A year later, the first cotton mill in Ahmedabad was established.
• The production journey of the first spinning and weaving mill in Madras began in 1874.

The Emergence of Early Entrepreneurs

• In the late eighteenth century, British traders in India started trading opium with China and importing tea to England, marking the beginning of a significant trading era.
• Visionary businessmen, such as Dwarkanath Tagore in Bengal and Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata in Bombay, recognized India's potential for industrial development.
• Seth Hukumchand and the First Jute Mill (1917):
• Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari businessman, established the very first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917.
• This marked the beginning of new investment opportunities in various industries, leading to the establishment of several factories.
• Colonial Trade Restrictions:
• However, colonial regulations prevented Indians from trading manufactured goods with Europe.
• They were primarily limited to exporting raw materials and food grains, including raw cotton, opium, wheat, and indigo, which were in high demand among the British.
• Role of European Managing Agencies:
• European Managing Agencies like Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner & Co. played pivotal roles in this era.
• They mobilized capital, established joint-stock companies, and efficiently managed these enterprises, contributing significantly to India's industrial growth.

Where the Workers Came From?

• As factories expanded, the need for workers grew.
• Many workers migrated from nearby districts in search of job opportunities.
• Examples of Migration (1911):
• In 1911, more than half of the workers in Bombay's cotton industries came from the nearby Ratnagiri district.
• Kanpur mills heavily relied on workers from the surrounding villages within the Kanpur district.
• Word of job openings spread, prompting workers to travel long distances in hopes of securing employment in these mills.
• Challenges in Employment:
• Despite the rising demand for workers, finding employment was tough.
• The number of job seekers consistently exceeded the available positions.
• Role of Intermediaries (Jobbers):
• To recruit new workers, most industrialists relied on intermediaries known as jobbers.
• These jobbers were brought in from their own villages.
• Industrialists not only helped these jobbers settle down but also provided financial support when required.

The Unique Aspects of Industrial Development

• Industrial Focus by European Managing Agencies:
• European Managing Agencies concentrated on exporting tea, coffee, mining, indigo, and jute.
• Indian Businessmen Establishing Industries:
• Indian entrepreneurs established industries, using yarn from spinning mills for both domestic consumption and export to China.
• Impact of Swadeshi Movement and Competition:
• The Swadeshi movement and competition from Chinese and Japanese mills led to a decline in Indian yarn exports.
• Slow Industrial Growth Until World War-I:
• Industrial growth remained sluggish until the conclusion of World War-I.
• World War-I Boost to Indian Mills:
• However, the war had a positive impact on Indian mills as they supplied goods related to the war effort.
• This led to a flourishing of industrial production.
• Shift in Market Dominance:
• As a result, Manchester lost its previous dominance in the Indian market.

Dominance of Small-Scale Industries

• Predominance of Small-scale Industries:
• The majority of the industrial workforce was concentrated in small-scale industries, with only a few individuals working in registered factories.
• Twentieth Century Growth of Handicraft Production:
• Handicraft production, particularly handloom cloth, experienced growth during the twentieth century.
• Technological advancements played a crucial role in enhancing productivity without substantially increasing costs.
• Weaver Groups and Competition:
• Different groups of weavers encountered varying levels of competition from mill industries.
• Some specialized in crafting coarse cloth, while others focused on producing finer varieties.
• Challenges despite Increased Production:
• Despite the rise in production among weavers and artisans, prosperity didn't always follow.
• They put in long hours of work, including women and children, yet their livelihoods were not mere relics of the past in the era of factories.
• Integral Role in Industrialization:
• Their lives and work played an essential and integrated role in the process of industrialization.

Marketing for Goods

• Role of Advertisements in Promoting Products:
• Advertisements have long played a crucial role in promoting new products and shaping consumer culture.
• They create a sense of desirability and necessity around products, influencing people's perceptions and generating new needs.
• Pervasiveness of Advertisements in Today's World:
• In the contemporary world, advertisements surround us, appearing in various forms such as newspapers, magazines, billboards, walls, and television screens.
• Historical Significance of Advertisements:
• Since the early days of the industrial age, advertisements have been vital in expanding product markets and molding consumer preferences.
• For example, Manchester industrialists used tags on cloth bundles to indicate quality, prominently displaying the "MADE IN MANCHESTER" label to build buyer confidence.
• Some labels even featured finely crafted images, including depictions of Indian gods and goddesses.
• Utilization of Calendars for Promotion:
• Manufacturers also employed printed calendars as a means to popularize their products, often incorporating images of gods to enhance their appeal.
• Evolution of Advertisements in Line with Nationalist Sentiments:
• Over time, advertisements evolved to become a platform for promoting the nationalist message of Swadeshi.
• They aligned with the cause of indigenous production and self-reliance, reflecting changing societal values and priorities.